Our apprentices take a closer look at some of BAG’s most common crops. Read the comments below to learn about the history, growing practices, market standards, and common pests for some New England Produce!
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Boston Area Gleaners 
Butternut squash is a type of winter squash and a member of the same family as pumpkin. Like other squash, they grow long vines and broad leaves. The seeds can be planted in the spring, but will not germinate if they are exposed to a frost. Winter squash, botanically a fruit, is harvested when the fruit’s seeds are fully matured and the skin has hardened into a rind. When the squash are harvested their exterior should be dull and dry looking; immature squash will look brighter and the skin can be easily scratched by a fingernail. This later harvest (relative to the fruit’s maturity) sets winter squash apart from summer squash, and enables them to be stored for longer, thus leading to their availability in the winter.
Despite the term “winter squash,” these squash prefer warmer temperatures and will not keep as long if the mature fruits experience a frost. They are generally ready to harvest between September and October. These squash are good sources of fiber, vitamin C, magnesium, and potassium, which makes it an excellent choice for staving off scurvy during the long winter months.
This family of squash originated in Mexico and Central America, where they were initially harvested for their seeds. However, the variety we now recognize as butternut squash has its roots in the Waltham Field Station. In the mid 1940s Charles Leggett of Stow, Massachusetts experimented with blending squash varieties to develop a thicker, tastier flesh. The result was called the Waltham, and it is the squash that we recognize as butternut squash today, so named for its buttery smooth and nutty sweet flesh.
Winter squash will store for 2-3 months when kept at 50-55 F with 50% relative humidity. An important aspect of prolonging storage is preventing hollow necks and weight loss due to dehydration, so squash may be held up to 10 days at 80-85 F with 80% relative humidity to prolong their storage. During this curing time excess moisture evaporates, preventing rot and concentrating the sugars for a sweeter taste. The skin also becomes harder, decreasing respiration, which allows the squash to be stored longer.
Pests and Diseases
Butternut squash and many other varieties of squash are bred to be disease resistant, and pests tend to pose a bigger problem.
Vine Borers: Vine borers will bore into the main stems at the base of squash plants and feed on the plants themselves. This is often hard to detect, but signs include wilting and piles of “sawdust” at the base of plants.
Squash Bugs: Squash bugs suck the juices from the plant and will attack the fruit as well. They lay eggs on the underside of the leaves.
Cucumber Beetles: Cucumber beetles go after young plants’ leaves and stems. They also carry wilt diseases between plants.
Many common diseases that may affect winter squash plants are caused by fungus or bacteria.
Powdery Mildew: Caused by fungi, this disease stunts growth and can kill the plant. The leaves will appear dusted with white flour when the plant has been infected. Fortunately, powdery mildew resistant varieties exist for growing.
Bacterial Wilt: Plants infected with the bacterium Erwinia tracheiphila can suddenly wilt and die. If infected plants are fed on by cucumber beetles, the beetles can carry the bacteria to other plants, and must be eliminated to stop the spread.
Blossom-End Rot: This disease occurs when the squash do not take up enough calcium, and can cause the squash to turn dark on the blossom end. This can be caused by uneven watering, rapid growth, excessive nitrogen, or excessive potassium in the soil.
Anthracnose: Another fungal disease, anthracnose causes the leaves to develop yellowish or water-soaked spots which turn brown, then black, before falling and leaving holes in the leaves. Infected fruits contain sunken canker-like spots. The fungus can live in the seeds, and be spread between cucurbits, so it is important to plant them in an area that did not grow cucurbit plants in the previous season.
USDA Standards and Grading
As a winter squash, butternut squash falls under the USDA Fall and Winter Type Squash and Pumpkin standards for grading:
U.S. No. 1 consists of squash or pumpkin which meet the following requirements:
a. Basic requirements:
i. Similar varietal characteristics;
ii. Well matured; and,
iii. Not broken or cracked.
b. Free from: Soft rot or wet breakdown.
c. Free from damage by:
i. Scars;
ii. Dry rot;
iii. Freezing;
iv. Dirt;
v. Disease;
vi. Insects; and,
vii. Mechanical or other means.
U.S. No. 2 consists of squash or pumpkin which meet the following requirements:
a. Basic requirements:
i. Similar varietal characteristics;
ii. Fairly well matured; and,
iii. Not broken or cracked.
b. Free from: Soft rot or wet breakdown.
c. Free from serious damage by:
i. Scars;
ii. Dry rot;
iii. Freezing;
iv. Dirt;
v. Disease;
vi. Insects; and,
vii. Mechanical or other means.
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Eggplant. Believe it or not, it does have a connection to eggs. The commonly purple plant actually received its name because of its white cultivars, which look very similar to white eggs. Eggplant, also known as Aubergine in the UK, Ireland, and Quebec, is believed to have originated in India or Africa, where it still grows wild. It was first mentioned in a Chinese text in 544, and its many names from around the world indicate the vegetable spread to the Mediterranean area and eventually northern Europe during the middle ages. The eggplant is part of the nightshade family, many of which are very poisonous, so the fruit was avoided for part of history. It is still true that the flowers and leaves of the plant can be harmful if one decides to eat a lot of them. Today, eggplant is enjoyed in many cultural dishes, such as the Philippine tortang talong, an eggplant omelet, or the eggplant parmesan, a popular alternative to the carnivorous chicken parm. (Wikipedia)
In terms of nutrition, eggplant not very calorically dense. In 100 grams, 6% is carbohydrates, 1% is protein, and the rest is water. It provides low amounts of many essential nutrients, such as niacin, folate, and Vitamin K. It also has comparably high amounts of manganese, with 11% the daily value! (Wikipedia)
The USDA standards for Eggplant are similar to many other vegetables. There are 3 grades; U.S Fancy, U.S No. 1, and U.S. No. 2. U.S. Fancy is the perfect eggplant: The USDA cites “U.S. Fancy consists of eggplants of similar varietal characteristics, except when specified as a mixed or specialty pack, which are well colored, firm, clean, well shaped, and which are free from decay and worm holes and free from injury caused by scars, freezing, disease, insects, or mechanical or other means.” U.S. No. 1 is very similar to U.S. Fancy, except they can be “fairly well colored” and “fairly well shaped”. Lastly, U.S. No. 2 includes eggplants of different varietal characteristics, are firm, and free from decay and serious damaged caused by freezing, disease, insects, or mechanical or other means. (USDA)
Like all crops, eggplants are not perfect, and can have some defects. The top 5 include;
1. Potato beetle infestation, insects which cause damage to foliage
2. Phomopsis fruit rot, which is caused by a fungus and emerges in hot, humid conditions.
3. Blossom-end rot, which usually is caused by a low calcium concentration in the fruit.
4. Cercosporin leaf spot, which creates light or dark brown dots on the leaves
5. Early blight, caused by fungus and early dropping of leaves.
Eggplant is a warm-season crop and grows best in daytime temperatures of 80-90 degrees F. They should be grown in full sunlight in soil with a pH between 6.3-6.8. They may benefit from mulch or soil covers to increase temperature of soil. You can harvest an eggplant when the flesh is firm, glossy, and dark purple and seeds are small. To harvest, cut the green stem above the fruit. The fruit is overripe if it has darker seeds and tastes bitter (Plantvillage.edu). When harvesting, eggplants should be tightly packed in carboard or paper containers. They should be rapidly cooled once harvested to 50 degrees F. Eggplants should be stored between 50-54 degrees F. They are sensitive to the cold though, and visual properties can deteriorate after 14 days of chilled storage (USDA). Therefore, eggplants are best eaten soon after harvest!
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Wow, I had always meant to look up why eggplant is called “egg”plant, but it’s something you just forget to do and then accept into the general knowledge of the universe as a weird anomaly. Thanks for all this cool information Annika!
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I’ve grown some of the eggplants that look like eggs before actually.. My parents grew up eating those varieties in Ghana!
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Summer squash is the colloquial name for soft-rinded gourds grown for consumption during the warm months. Summer squash plants have a bushier growth pattern than their more sprawling cousins, the winter squash, but can still be relied upon to produce trailing tendrils and significant leaf coverage.
All summer squash are in the cucurbit family along with cucumbers and melons, but they may be in one of several different species. Most summer squash available in the United States are subspecies of Cucurbita pepo, first cultivated in Mesoamerica long before the arrival of European colonists. Nowadays, decades of agricultural science produced many varieties of the pepo species including zucchini, pattypan, straightneck, crookedneck, and many more Several oft-grown summer squash, such as the Korean aehobak, are actually Cucurbita moschata — the pumpkin and winter squash family, which are more commonly harvested when mature and thick-skinned, rather than when immature. Several other squash not in either pepo or moschata may be termed summer squash if their other characteristics align. Interestingly, the luffa — commonly known as a cleaning sponge loofah once harvested, dried, and processed — is often harvested as a soft-rind edible squash in India, China, and Vietnam.
In Cucurbita pepo the squash is botanically speaking the fruit of the plant — pepo means berry — a large swollen ovary of the squash flower. Culinarily speaking, most refer to squash as vegetables and prepare them as such. Squash fruit is not the only edible part of the plant — many prepare squash flowers as well, preferentially harvesting male flowers in order to ensure a full harvest of fruit later in the season as well. As they are immature, summer squash is not as nutritionally complex as winter squash — but because the rind is soft and edible, the bulk of the nutrients located there can be eaten. Nutritional differences between squash varieties is slight, most summer squash are a good source of magnesium, niacin, vitamins A and C. The University of Illinois lists the following nutritional facts for a cup of raw sliced zucchini:
Calories 16
Protein 1.31 grams
Carbohydrates 3.27 grams
Dietary Fiber 1.36 grams
Calcium 16.95
Potassium 280.24
Vitamin A 384 IU
Folate 24.93 mcg
Several common pests can affect the growth of summer squash, including cucumber beetles and squash bugs. Both of these insects will cause damage and possibly death at all stages of the life cycle. The squash bug in particular can be exceedingly difficult to remove from established crops. It is best to catch such infestations before they grow and spread. If cucurbit plant tips are blackening and wilting, that may be a good indication of the presence of squash bugs, as they suck sap similar to aphids. Cucumber beetles may be easier to eliminate, but carry the added risk of potentially transferring mosaic to the vine crops.
The USDA necessitates that Grade 1 squash must be in perfect condition, free even from bruises or scrapes. As the fruit is harvested when immature, slight scrapes to the surface are nearly impossible to avoid. Additionally, they must be young, tender, and firm. Grade 2 squash need not be young nor tender, merely “not old and tough,” and only serious damage would remove them from qualification.
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Cucumbers (Cucumis sativus) are a vegetable in the Cucurbitaceae family, which includes watermelon, cantaloupe, and squash. The cucumber is native to India, where the earliest evidence dates it to around at least 3,000 years old. Throughout history, the cucumber has travelled to ancient Egypt as mentioned in the christian bible. In ancient Greece and Rome gardeners invented cold frames and portable planters so that cucumbers could be grown year-round. In Tudor era England King Henry VIII requested them frequently. When Columbus invaded Haiti in 1494 he brought cucumbers with him. By 1539 the colonizer and murderer Hernando De Soto recorded their growth in Florida. By 1806 there were eight varieties being grown in the continental United States. Two types of cucumbers are popular- slicing cucumbers and pickling cucumbers, which are shorter and fatter than their fresh-eating counterpart. Pickles became popularized in the United States when Heinz introduced pickles and relish to their production in 1876. In 2014, the National Garden Bureau became the “year of the cucumber”. The skins of cucumbers can become bitter tasting due to a natural pest-resistant compound called cucurbitacins.
In one medium-sized (7 inch) cucumber, there are 24 calories, 28 mg of calcium, and 28 micrograms of folate. A cucumber is about 96% water and very low in calories. It also includes antioxidants like Lutein/zeaxanthin and beta-carotene.
5 most common pests/damage that can occur with cucumbers are:
Bacterial wilt
Powdery mildew (cucumber beetle)
Angular Leaf Spot
Anthracnose
Belly-rot
Most of these are foliar fungal infections that can be controlled by choosing resistant varieties and controlling moisture on and around the plant. Use mulching plastic and use drip irrigation.
Cucumbers have a vining growth pattern with the earliest fertilized fruits appearing closest to the center of the plant and moving down the vine over time. In order for a high yield, they require consistent access to water and sustained summer heat. Cucumbers’ preferred soil is acidic to neutral soil and the plant is hardy in zones 4-11. Cucumbers fruit in mid-summer. There are bushing varieties but vining is most common. Trellising vining varieties produces the least instances of foliar diseases and can make harvesting easier. For farmers, rotating cucurbit plantings every 2-3 years is recommended to avoid disease prevalence. Pickling cucumbers have a faster rate of maturation the processing (slicing) cucumbers so for this variety irrigation isn’t always necessary and double-cropping is common. Michigan is the highest U.S. producing state of pickling cucumbers; Florida is the highest U.S. producing state for slicers. In 2017 Massachusetts harvested 248 acres of cucumbers over 355 farms. In 2019, the U.S. supplied 11.42 pounds of all cucumber varieties (eaten fresh) for each person in the United States .
USDA standards for a market grade cucumber include:
§51.2220 U.S. Fancy.
“U.S. Fancy” consists of cucumbers which are well colored, well formed, not
overgrown, and which are fresh, firm, and free from decay, sunscald, and from injury
caused by scars and from damage caused by yellowing, sunburn, dirt or other foreign
material, freezing, mosaic or other disease, insects, cuts, bruises, mechanical or other
means. (See §51.2227.)
(a) The maximum diameter of each cucumber shall be not more than 2-3/8 inches
and the length of each cucumber shall be not less than 6 inches.”
Sources
https://ipm.missouri.edu/MEG/2014/3/Cucumber-A-Brief-History/
https://www.almanac.com/plant/cucumbers
https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/DataFiles/88551/General.pdf?v=5916.9
https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/AgCensus/2017/Full_Report/Volume_1,_Chapter_1_State_Level/Massachusetts/
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pg046
Click to access CucumberStandards.pdf
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Origins and Carrot Varieties
Carrots are a root vegetable that originate in Central Asia. Modern day carrots, which are predominately orange flesh, are derived from a wild carrot ancestors that were purple and yellow. There are two main types of cultivars 1) Eastern/Asiatic Carrots and 2) Western or Carotene Carrots. The Eastern/Asiatic Carrots tend to be purple/black with a few having yellow roots. They are traditionally grown in much of the Middle East and Central Asia. The Western or Carotene Carrot are your more traditional orange flesh carrot. They can also have red or white flesh. It’s likely that the orange flesh carrots were originally developed in the Netherlands.
Carrots are notoriously difficult to germinate. The seeds must have proper contact with the soil, which should not dry out prior to germination and lastly carrots germinate better in cooler temperatures. Depending on the variety Carrots take anywhere from 52-75 days to mature and considering they are a root crop they have excellent storage capabilities. Carrots can be stored in the fridge for up to a month after cutting off the carrot tops. In a home garden you can mulch carrots with leaves, straw or hay and store them in the ground and pick them whenever you are ready.
Diseases and Pests
Once germinated there are a number of pests that can impact the carrot crop. There are several leaf blights that can decrease the carrot yield. Johnny’s Seeds highlights these two as serious
• Alternaria Blight
o Brown -black lesions edged with yello on leaf margins, especially on the older leaves.
o If infected early, roots may never mature.
o Avoid Alternaria Blight by picking cultivars resistant to blight avoid excessive overhead watering and don’t overcrowd plants
• Cercospora blight
o Small dark spots with yellow margins on younger leaves and stems.
o Similar to Alternaria blight, pick cultivars that have some resistance, avoid over head watering and avoid overcrowding.
Johnny’s also highlights a couple of pests carrots are prone too
• Carrot Rust Fly
o Not an issue everywhere, most pervasive in temperate zones. Fly larvae will burrow into roots rendering them unmarketable.
o Best methods of control: utilize a 3-5 year rotation of all crops within the carrot family (Apiaceae i.e. parsnips celery parsley, dill, chervil etc…)
o Row Cover is another method of protection
• Wire Worms
o Wireworms are the larvae of click beetles. They burrow into the roots and make them unmarketable.
o Best methods of control: crop rotation on a 3-5 year bases, avoid planting carrots in any location that was recently in sod, and plow in the fall to expose wireworms to birds.
USDA Standards
U.S. No. 1 consists of carrots which meet the following requirements:
1. Basic requirements:
a. Similar varietal characteristics;
b. Firm;
c. Fairly well colored;
d. Fairly well formed;
e. Fairly smooth; and,
f. Not woody.
2. Free from: Unusable material.
3. Free from damage by:
a. Soft rot;
b. Growth cracks;
c. Sunburn;
d. Green core;
e. Pithy core;
f. Watercore;
g. Internal discoloration;
h. Oil spray;
i. Freezing;
j. Dry rot;
k. Other disease;
l. Insects;
m. and, Mechanical or other means.
4. Free from serious damage by: Soft rot.
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It makes sense to leave root crops in the ground for storage — but it does surprise me, as I would think them much more susceptible to disease/rot/infection this way!
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My assigned fruit was the apple, and I really enjoyed getting sucked into a number of different rabbit holes while doing my research! I’ve included my sources, as well as a few interesting articles I read at the end of my comment. 🙂
~History~
The apple tree (Malus domestica) has origins in Central Asia–Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan,
And spread through trade routes and the spread of empires to the east and west, eventually brought to the ‘New World’ of the Americas by colonists in the 1600s. At this point in history, apples were craggly and much less sweet than they are today. They were most often used to feed livestock or make hard apple cider, the most commonly consumed alcoholic beverage during much of the early white settling of the US and Canada.
Depending on who is telling the story, Johnny Appleseed was a legend, a pioneer, a settler, a colonizer, a missionary. Born in Massachusetts in 1774, Chapman apprenticed as a young man for an orchardist, and eventually ventured out into many lands not yet claimed or settled by white Americans. The legend of Johnny Appleseed is, in many ways, wound up in Manifest Destiny, as he travelled the American ‘frontier,’ planting apple seeds and young trees into small orchard nurseries, which he would then sell to white American settlers and move on–while also working as a missionary, attempting to convert Anglo-American settlers and Indigenous people alike to the Church of Swedenborg, or the New Church, of which he was an ardent believer. He is generally believed to be responsible for introducing apple trees to regions including Pennsylvania, Ontario, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and West Virginia. Michael Pollan writes that Chapman brought “the gift of alcohol [via hard cider] to the frontier. He was our American Dionysus.”
It was not until the late nineteenth century that apples began to be bred for raw consumption, with the Red Delicious. According to history.com, apples are now grown in nearly every state in the country, and after grapes and oranges, are the third most important fruit for the US economy. Today, the US apple industry generates roughly 48,000 tons of apples every year, which equates to roughly $2.7 billion annually. According to vermontapples.com, there are roughly 8,000 identified apple varieties around the world, but in the US, just a few varieties of apples make up over 90% of the national crop. Usapple.org states that the varieties most produced are Pink Lady/Cripps Pink, Empire, Fuji, Gala, Golden Delicious, Granny Smith, Honeycrisp, McIntosh, and Red Delicious. In general, these apples are more pest resistant, have a longer storage/shelf life, are able to handle long transportation, hide bruises well, and are generally cosmetically ‘pretty.’
~Nutrition~
“An apple a day keeps the doctor away” is a saying we have all likely heard! Apples are rich in fiber, vitamin C, potassium, and antioxidants like quercetin, catechin, and chlorogenic acid. And despite their relatively high sugar content, whole apples have a low glycemic index like most other fruits, making them acceptable to eat for folks with blood sugar problems. However, an apple derivative like apple juice does not have the same nutritional value as whole apples–apple juice is filtered to remove pulp, and pasteurized, leaving a lot of sugar, but little nutritional value. While researching apples, I also learned the difference between apple juice and apple cider. Apple cider also has a shorter shelf life because it is left unpasteurized. It is made from apples that are ground into an apple mash/applesauce, then pressed into juice. This process leaves behind a lot more sediment and pulp in the cider, which also leaves behind more of the healthful compounds found in apples, making it a healthier option than apple juice.
~USDA Standards~
There are a number of grades of apples as defined by the USDA: U.S. Extra Fancy, U.S. Fancy, U.S. No. 1, U.S. No. 1 Hail, and U.S. Utility, as well as combination grades of U.S. Extra Fancy + U.S. Fancy; U.S. Fancy + U.S. No. 1; and U.S. No. 1 + U.S. Utility.
U.S. Extra Fancy apples are “apples of one variety (except when more than one variety is printed on the container) that are mature but not overripe, clean, fairly well formed, free from decay, internal browning, internal breakdown, soft scald, scab, freezing injury, visible water core, and broken skins. The apples are also free from injury caused by bruises, brown surface discoloration, smooth net-like russeting, sunburn or sprayburn, limb rubs, hail, drought spots, scars, disease, insects, or other means. The apples are free from damage caused by bitter pit or Jonathan spot and by smooth solid, slightly rough or rough russeting, or stem or calyx cracks, as well as damage by invisible water core after January 31st of the year following the year of production except for the Fuji variety of apples. Invisible water core and smooth net-like russeting shall not be scored against the Fuji variety of apples under any circumstances.”
U.S. Fancy apples are similar to Extra Fancy, but some allowance is made for small amounts of injury caused by bruises, brown surface discoloration, russeting, etc.
U.S. No. 1 apples are similar to Fancy, but more allowance is made for damage–apples of this grade just must be “free from excessive damage” caused by the defects listed above.
U.S. No. 1 Hail is a subcategory consisting of apples “which meet the requirements of U.S. No. 1 grade except that hail marks where the skin has not been broken and well healed hail marks where the skin has been broken, are permitted, provided the apples are fairly well formed.”
U.S. Utility is similar to No. 1, but more allowance is made for excessive damage–apples of this grade must be “free from serious damage”
~Common Defects (from ag.umass.edu)~
A close friend of mine works on an apple and peach orchard in Massachusetts, so I asked her about the common defects and pests that cause the most harm in the area. She told me that the most common and most serious infections and defects were: apple scab, apple maggot, fireblight, powdery mildew, San Jose scab, and bitter rot.
Here are more details about these infections and defects, from ag.umass.edu:
-Apple scab is caused by the fungal pathogen Venturia inaequali and can infect leaves, flowers, fruit, and succulent twigs of apple trees. It causes foliar blight and lesions on fruits, which degrades the quality and value of apples, making it a major concern for growers. Fungicides can help prevent apple scab.
-Apple maggot flies (Rhagoletis pomonella) cause damage to apples due to tunneling of larvae in apple flesh. This leaves tiny brown trails in the fruit’s flesh, which is evident at harvest but can worsen during storage. Removing fallen apples from the base of the tree within a few days of them falling can help prevent maggots.
-Fireblight is a bacterial infection caused by Erwinia amylovora that, if left uncontrolled, can infect an entire orchard. It has become more common in New England in recent years. The bacteria infects blossoms during warm, wet weather, then migrates through the plant’s vascular tissue, to the growing shoots and rootstocks, killing tissue and whole trees. To manage the infection, blighted shoots, and sometimes whole trees, need to be removed and tools sanitized.
-Powdery mildew is a fungal infection caused by Podosphaera leucotricha that infects the terminal leaves and growing buds of new shoots. It begins with overwintering fungus in terminal buds, and in the spring, infected shoots with shriveled leaves will emerge with new buds covered with powdery white spores and cause new infections. Varieties like Cortyland, Idared, Gingergold, and Jonathan are more susceptible to powdery mildew. Fungicides can help control the mildew.
-San Jose scale (Quadraspidiotus perniciousis) is a scale insect that infests the bark, limbs and trunk of apple trees. When the fruit is infested, it develops a reddish-purple ring around the spot where a scale insect settles–the female San Jose scale permanently attach to plant tissue. When fertilized by male scales, each female produces hundreds of crawlers that disperse over the tree. They cause damage by removing sap from trees, which ‘depletes vigor and decreases yield’ and can cause cracking of the wood over time, and if left uncontrolled, it can kill the tree. Yearly pruning helps manage the scale.
-Bitter rot (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, C. acutatum, and others) is more common in the hot, humid climate of southeastern US, but occurs in the Northeast as well. It is caused by different fungi of the genus Colletotrichum during warm rainy periods after the fruit set, and continues through the summer, with increased risk as the fruit matures. It is most common in light or bicolored varieties like Empire, Honeycrisp, McIntosh, Sunrise, Paulared, and Jonagold. The infection begins as small light brown spots on the fruit, and in hot weather, the spots expand rapidly and can produce spore masses. The flesh becomes light brown and watery and as the fruit ripens, it is very susceptible to decay. It can be controlled by removing sources of the infection and pruning trees to open the canopy to light, air, and spray penetration.
~Growing~
Apple trees are biennial, so produce a greater quantity of apples every two years. When first planted as seedlings or full-size trees, apple trees should be planted 15-18 feet apart in a row. They require cross-pollinaton–different cultivars/varieties that bloom at the same time should be planted nearby. Most apple trees are propagated by grafting tissues of another apple plant onto rootstocks, which helps control the size of the new tree. Apple trees need to be pruned yearly to help control disease and pests–pruning can include cutting away weak twigs, shortening droopy stems low in the tree, cutting away vigorous upright stems high in the tree, and cutting back old spurs.
~Harvesting~
Different apple varieties mature at different times–the harvest season generally stretches from August to October depending on the region. For most varieties, apples should be plucked when their background color is no longer green, and when the stem is easy to separate from the branch.
~Packing and Storing~
Mid- and late-season apples are best for storing–early season varieties don’t keep as well. Apples with visible damage, like bruises or blemishes, shouldn’t be stored as they are more susceptible to rot. Apples should be stored by being individually wrapped in newspaper or tissue paper, onto trays that allow air to circulate, and ideally, should be separated by variety, as each variety has a varying ideal storage time. The storage space should be cool, dark, and well-ventilated, ideally with humidity control.
-All info here from: (https://www.almanac.com/plant/apples)
For more interesting apple-related reads, I’d recommend:
-This fascinating Atlantic article about why the infamous, awful Red Delicious apple continues to ‘reign’: https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2014/09/the-evil-reign-of-the-red-delicious/379892/
-This PBS special based on Michael Pollan’s book, The Botany of Desire, that charts the rise of apples and sweetness https://vimeo.com/73624442
-Photographer William Mullan’s instagram account, where he shares photos of unique, rare, beautiful varieties of apples: https://www.instagram.com/pomme_queen/
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Tomato: Fruit or vegetable? Turning blood into acid? Blue tomatoes!? Read on to find out what I learned this week:
It is believed that the wild variety of tomatoes originated in the Americas as there is evidence that the Aztecs in 700 AD consumed them and called them tomatl. Spanish conquistadors brought tomatoes back across the Atlantic and introduced them to Europeans. The first written account of tomatoes in Europe describes a yellow eggplant relative in the 1500s. Wild tomatoes are still found in the Andes.
Tomatoes were avoided for human consumption for a long time, and when they were first used, it was only for table decoration. They were thought to be poisonous, as they are related to other poisonous plants in the Solanaceae family, classified as Solanum lycopersicum which means “wolf peach”. It is true that tomato plants are poisonous containing tomatine like other nightshades, except for the mature fruit.
The idea that tomatoes were poisonous was only exasperated by stories of aristocrats becoming ill after eating them. As it turns out, the acidity from the tomatoes was contributing to the leaching of lead from their utensils “turning their blood to acid”. Those who could not afford precious metal utensils used wood and were not poisoned and tomatoes became a staple of their diets, especially in Italy.
Tomatoes were not popular in the US until the 1900s. It took some campaigning by Thomas Jefferson to advance their use. Now tomatoes are a household staple, and global production exceeds 70 million metric tons.
You say ‘tomato’ and I say ‘tomato’ but is a tomato a vegetable or a fruit? Botanically speaking, tomatoes are the fruits of the plant, and in fact are technically berries – a fleshy fruit without a stone, produced from a single flower, containing one ovary. However the argument was made in the late 1800s that tomatoes are less sweet than other fruits of the American diet and since they are used more as a culinary vegetable they could be taxed as such. The tomato is still recognized as both a fruit and a vegetable, especially in Arkansas where it is both the state fruit and the state vegetable.
Nutritionally, tomatoes have a lot of vitamin C, vitamin A and potassium. Tomatoes contain lycopene which is a powerful antioxidant. Of course, most of their content is water.
The Commercial Tomato Production Handbook published by the University of Georgia is an excellent resource for farmers who want to grow tomatoes commercially. Although cultivated as an annual, the tomato plant is actually is a perennial in its native state, and plants may be able to overwinter in the right conditions. (There was a record breaking tomato “tree” growing for several years at a special greenhouse at Epcot, a variety found in Bejing, producing 32,000 tomatoes.) The tomato plant is a vine with a weak stem that requires support to grow vertically. Most commercial growers cultivate determinate varieties of tomatoes that ripen over a month on bushy vines that don’t need staking, while heirloom garden and greenhouse varieties are indeterminate, where the vines continue to grow with supports and produce fruit all season long. Heirloom tomatoes are genetics passed down season to season that have the opportunity to adapt to the hyper local climate and conditions, therefore producing a higher quality, often better tasting crop.
Tomato plants can grow almost anywhere with fertile, well-drained sandy loam or loamy soil, in full sun. It is recommended to follow tomato plantings, or any Solanaceae plantings, with crops in the grass family such as corn. Tomatoes can be deep rooted, sometimes up to 10 feet, but most roots reside in the upper 1-2 feet and are limited by compact soils. The spacing depends on preferred trellising methods and creating good air flow between crops. Most are planted as 5 week old transplants and not directly seeded. Plants are pruned to remove suckers in order to direct energy into fruiting rather than vegetation. They are often mulched with plastic. Moisture stress from sporadic watering causes many diseases and blight and it is important to keep them well hydrated, so irrigation is recommended.
Some common diseases, pests and defects are:
• Bacterial wilt, a bacteria that enters through roots or open sores and comes from contaminated soil.
• Early blight that shows as brown spots or rings on leaves caused by a fungus.
• Late blight caused by fungus from periods of cool, wet weather.
• Mosaic virus that is transmitted by aphids.
• Blossom end rot showing as a black spot on the blossom end of the fruit from not getting enough calcium either not enough in the soil or too low of a pH for the plant to intake it.
• Anthracnose caused by a fungus creating an indent with a large dark center.
• Weather can cause blossom drop (flowers dropping without developing), fruit cracks (hot and then too much rain, swelling and cracking), sunscalled (too much direct sun from pruning or otherwise not shading the fruit) and catfacing (when the plants are pollinated during the cool weather).
• Puffiness, a fruit that is hollower in the center, due to poor soil nutrition.
• Some pests include cutworms, hornworms, Colorado potato beetle, stink bugs and spider mites.
To avoid rotten tomatoes, harvesting during the breaker stage is recommended and causes the fewest bruises. It’s important to grade while harvesting to avoid having decayed fruit contaminating other crops. Mechanical defects account for more than any others, so handling tomatoes gently is important. Tomatoes are climacteric meaning they ripen after they are harvested. Ethylene is what is produced naturally by tomato respiration and methods have been developed to artificially quicken or slow down this process to aid in transportation and storage. Tomatoes are temperature sensitive and storage temps differ with the maturity of the fruit, ranging from 50 to 60°F for green to pink.
To be considered a Grade 1 tomato by the USDA, the tomato must meet these requirements:
Similar varietal characteristics; Mature; Not overripe or soft; Clean; Well developed; Fairly well formed; and Fairly smooth. Free from: Decay; Freezing injury; and Sunscald. Not damaged by any other cause. There are tolerances for Grade 1, but if the tomato does not qualify there are also Grades 2 and 3, each with their own individual tolerances of how much damage a tomato can have and still be saleable.
The first commercially grown genetically engineered food licensed for human consumption was a tomato called Flavr Savr. It was developed in 1994 and was modified to withstand a longer shelf life. It was unsuccessful on the market as the cross breeding removed the sweet taste and flavor, ironically. Tomatoes are the perfect genetic subject to test methods of DNA altercation. Tomatoes have been modified to improve their taste, their shelf life by delaying ripening, to create pest resistance to tobacco hornworm, fruitworm, fruit borer, and root knot nematode, and to be less susceptible to certain fungi. There was even the idea of creating a blue tomato that would have a similar nutrient content to blackberries and blueberries. And there have been trials investigating the possibility of making a tomato a vehicle to deliver vaccines!
Although there are no genetically modified tomatoes commercially available today, tomatoes have been bred to produce thousands of varieties world-wide from cherry, to red or green beefsteak, roma, and heirloom. Varieties that I am growing this season in containers are Jet Star, Black Cherry, Sungold and “Matt’s Wild Cherry”.
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